Chapter 23
The above-given list is from Guest's English Rhythms (B. iii. c. 3). It const.i.tutes that portion of the elements of our language which may be called the Latin of the second, or Saxon period.
-- 154. _The Anglo-Norman element._--For practical purposes we may say that the French or Anglo-Norman element appeared in our language after the battle of Hastings, A.D. 1066.
Previous, however, to that period we find notices of intercourse between the two countries.
1. The residence in England of Louis Outremer.
2. Ethelred II. married Emma, daughter of Richard Duke of Normandy, and the two children were sent to Normandy for education.
3. Edward the Confessor is particularly stated to have encouraged French manners and the French language in England.
4. Ingulphus of Croydon speaks of his own knowledge of French.
5. Harold pa.s.sed some time in Normandy.
6. The French article _la_, in the term _la Drove_, occurs in a deed of A.D. 975.--See Ranouard, _Journal des Savans_, 1830.
The chief Anglo-Norman elements of our language are the terms connected with the feudal system, the terms relating to war and chivalry, and a great portion of the law terms--_duke_, _count_, _baron_, _villain_, _service_, _chivalry_, _warrant_, _esquire_, _challenge_, _domain_, &c.
-- 155. The Norwegian, Danish, Norse, or Scandinavian element of the Anglo-Norman (as in the proper names _Guernsey_, _Jersey_, _Alderney_, and perhaps others) const.i.tutes the _indirect_ Scandinavian element of the English.
-- 156. _Latin of the Third Period._--This means the Latin which was introduced between the battle of Hastings and the revival of literature. It chiefly originated with the monks, in the universities, and, to a certain extent, in the courts of law. It must be distinguished from the _indirect_ Latin introduced as part and parcel of the Anglo-Norman. It has yet to be accurately a.n.a.lyzed. {102}
_Latin of the Fourth Period._--This means the Latin which has been introduced between the revival of literature and the present time. It has originated in the writings of learned men in general, and is distinguished from that of the previous periods by--
1. Being less altered in form--
2. Preserving, in the case of substantives, in many cases its original inflections; _axis_, _axes_; _basis_, _bases_--
3. Relating to objects and ideas for which the increase of the range of science in general has required a nomenclature.
-- 157. _Greek._--Words derived _directly_ from the Greek are in the same predicament as the Latin of the third period--_phaenomenon_, _phaenomena_; _criterion_, _criteria_, &c.; words which are only _indirectly_ of Greek origin, being considered to belong to the language from which they were immediately introduced into the English. Such are _deacon_, _priest_, &c., introduced through the Latin; thus a word like _church_ proves no more in regard to a Greek element in English, than the word _abbot_ proves in respect to
-- 158. The Latin of the fourth period and the Greek agree in retaining, in many cases, the Latin or Greek inflexions rather than adopting the English ones; in other words, they agree in being but _imperfectly incorporated_.
The phaenomenon of imperfect incorporation (an important one) is reducible to the following rules:--
1. That it has a direct ratio to the date of the introduction, _i.e._, the more recent the word the more likely it is to retain its original inflexion.
2. That it has a relation to the number of meanings belonging to the words: thus, when a single word has two meanings, the original inflexion expresses one, the English inflexion another--_genius_, _genii_, often (_spirits_), _geniuses_ (_men of genius_).
3. That it occurs with substantives only, and that only in the expression of number. Thus, although the plural of substantives like _axis_ and _genius_ are Latin, the possessive cases are English. So also are the degrees of comparison, for {103} adjectives like _circular_, and the tenses, &c. for verbs, like perambulate.
-- 159. The following is a list of the chief Latin substantives, introduced during the latter part of the fourth period; and, preserving the _Latin_ plural forms--
FIRST CLa.s.s.
_Words wherein the Latin Plural is the same as the Latin Singular._
(_a_) _Sing._ _Plur._ (_b_) _Sing._ _Plur._ | Apparatus apparat_us_ | Caries cari_es_ Hiatus hiat_us_ | Congeries congeri_es_ Impetus impet_us_. | Series seri_es_ | Species speci_es_ | Superficies superfici_es_.
SECOND CLa.s.s.
_Words wherein the Latin Plural is formed from the Latin Singular by changing the last Syllable._
(_a_).--_Where the Singular termination _-a_ is changed in the Plural into _-ae__:--
_Sing._ _Plur._ | _Sing._ _Plur._ | Formul_a_ formul_ae_ | Nebul_a_ nebul_ae_ Lamin_a_ lamin_ae_ | Scori_a_ scori_ae_.
Larv_a_ larv_ae_ |
(_b_).--_Where the singular termination _-us_ is changed in the Plural into _-i__:--
_Sing._ _Plur._ | _Sing._ _Plur._ | Calcul_us_ calcul_i_ | Polyp_us_ polyp_i_ Coloss_us_ coloss_i_ | Radi_us_ radi_i_ Convolvul_us_ convolvul_i_ | Ranuncul_us_ ranuncul_i_ Foc_us_ foc_i_ | Sarcophag_us_ sarcophag_i_ Geni_us_ geni_i_ | Schirrh_us_ schirrh_i_ Mag_us_ mag_i_ | Stimul_us_ stimul_i_ Nautil_us_ nautil_i_ | Tumul_us_ tumul_i_.
Oesophag_us_ oesophag_i_ |
(_c_).--_Where the Singular termination _-um_ is changed in the Plural into _-a__:--
_Sing._ _Plur._ | _Sing._ _Plur._ | Animalcul_um_ animalcul_a_ | Mausole_um_ mausole_a_ Arcan_um_ arcan_a_ | Medi_um_ medi_a_ Collyri_um_ collyri_a_ | Memorand_um_ memorand_a_ Dat_um_ dat_a_ | Menstru_um_ menstru_a_ Desiderat_um_ desiderat_a_ | Moment_um_ moment_a_ {104} Effluvi_um_ effluvi_a_ | Premi_um_ premi_a_ Empori_um_ empori_a_ | Scholi_um_ scholi_a_ Encomi_um_ encomi_a_ | Spectr_um_ spectr_a_ Errat_um_ errat_a_ | Specul_um_ specul_a_ Gymnasi_um_ gymnasi_a_ | Strat_um_ strat_a_ Lixivi_um_ lixivi_a_ | Succedane_um_ succedanea.
l.u.s.tr_um_ l.u.s.tr_a_ |
(_d_).--_Where the singular termination _-is_ is changed in the Plural into _-es__:--
_Sing._ _Plur._ | _Sing._ _Plur._ | Amanuens_is_ amanuens_es_ | Ellips_is_ ellips_es_ a.n.a.lys_is_ a.n.a.lys_es_ | Emphas_is_ emphas_es_ Ant.i.thes_is_ ant.i.thes_es_ | Hypothes_is_ hypothes_es_ Ax_is_ ax_es_ | Oas_is_ oas_es_ Bas_is_ bas_es_ | Parenthes_is_ parenthes_es_ Cris_is_ cris_es_ | Synthes_is_ synthes_es_ Diaeres_is_ diaeres_es_ | Thes_is_ thes_es_.
THIRD CLa.s.s.
_Words wherein the Plural is formed by inserting _-e_ between the last two sounds of the singular, so that the former number always contains a syllable more than the latter_:--
_Sing_. _Plur_.
Apex _sounded_ apec-_s_ apic_es_ Appendix -- appendic-_s_ appendic_es_ Calix -- calic-_s_ calic_es_ Cicatrix -- cicatric-_s_ cicatric_es_ Helix -- helic-_s_ helic_es_ Index -- indec-_s_ indic_es_ Radix -- radic-_s_ radic_es_ Vertex -- vertec-_s_ vertic_es_ Vortex -- vortec-_s_ vortic_es_.
In all these words the _c_ of the singular number is sounded as _k_, of the plural as _s_.
-- 160. The following is a list of the chief Greek substantives lately introduced, and preserving the _Greek_ plural forms--
FIRST CLa.s.s.
_Words where the singular termination _-on_ is changed in the plural into _-a__:--
_Sing._ _Plur._
Apheli_on_ apheli_a_ Periheli_on_ periheli_a_ Automat_on_ automat_a_ Criteri_on_ criteri_a_ Ephemer_on_ ephemer_a_ Phaenomen_on_ phaenomen_a_.
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SECOND CLa.s.s.
_Words where the plural is formed from the original root by adding either _-es_ or _-a_, but where the singular rejects the last letter of the original root._