Deductive Logic

-- 53. Pure Nominalism was the swing of the pendulum of thought to the very opposite extreme; while Conceptualism was an attempt to hit the happy mean between the two.

-- 54. Roughly it may be said that the Realists sought for the answer to the question 'What is a Universal?' in the matter of thought, the Conceptualists in the form, and the Nominalists in the expression.

-- 55. A full answer to the question 'What is a Universal?' will bring in something of the three views above given, while avoiding the exaggeration of each. A Universal is a number of things that are called by the same name; but they would not be called by the same name unless they fell under the same conception in the mind; nor would they fall under the same conception in the mind unless there actually existed similar attributes in the several members of a cla.s.s, causing us to regard them under the same conception and to give them the same name. Universals therefore do exist in nature, and not merely in the mind of man: but their existence is dependent upon individual objects, instead of individual objects depending for their existence upon them. Aristotle saw this very clearly, and marked the distinction between the objects corresponding to the singular and to the common term by calling the former Primary and the latter Secondary Existences. Rosinante and Excalibur are primary, but 'horse' and 'sword' secondary existences.

-- 56. We have seen that the three products of thought are each one stage in advance of the other, the inference being built upon the proposition, as the proposition is built upon the term. Logic therefore naturally divides itself into three parts.

The First Part of Logic deals with the Term; The Second Part deals with the Proposition; The Third Part deals with the Inference.

PART I.--OF TERMS.

CHAPTER 1.

_Of the Term as distinguished from other words._

-- 57. The word 'term' means a boundary.

-- 58. The subject and predicate are the two terms, or boundaries, of a proposition. In a proposition we start from a subject and end in a predicate (---- 182-4), there being nothing intermediate between the two except the act of p.r.o.nouncing as to their agreement or disagreement, which is registered externally under the sign of the copula. Thus the subject is the 'terminus a quo,' and the predicate is the 'terminus ad quem.'

-- 59. Hence it appears that the term by its very name indicates that it is arrived at by an a.n.a.lysis of the proposition. It is the judgement or proposition that is the true unit of thought and speech. The proposition as a whole is prior in conception to the terms which are its parts: but the parts must come before the whole in the synthetic order of treatment.

-- 60. A term is the same thing as a name or noun.

-- 61. A name is a word, or collection of words, which serves as a mark to recall or transmit the idea of a thing, either in itself or through some of its attributes.

-- 62. Nouns, or names, are either Substantive or Adjective.

A Noun Substantive is the name of a thing in itself, that is to say, without reference to any special attribute.

-- 63. A Noun Adjective is a name which we are ent.i.tled to add to a thing, when we know it to possess a given attribute.

-- 64. The Verb, as such, is not recognised by logic, but is resolved into predicate and copula, that is to say, into a noun which is affirmed or denied of another, plus the sign of that affirmation or denial. 'The

-- 65. In grammar every noun is a separate word: but to logic, which is concerned with the thought rather than with the expression, it is indifferent whether a noun, or term, consists of one word or many. The latter are known as 'many-worded names.' In the following pa.s.sage, taken at random from Butler's a.n.a.logy--'These several observations, concerning the active principle of virtue and obedience to G.o.d's commands, are applicable to pa.s.sive submission or resignation to his will'--we find the subject consisting of fourteen words, and the predicate of nine. It is the exception rather than the rule to find a predicate which consists of a single word. Many-worded names in English often consist of clauses introduced by the conjunction 'that,'

as 'That letters should be written in strict conformity with nature is true': often also of a grammatical subject with one or more dependent clauses attached to it, as

'He who fights and runs away, Will live to fight another day.'

-- 66. Every term then is not a word, since a term may consist of a collection of words. Neither is every word a term. 'Over,' for instance, and 'swiftly,' and, generally, what are called particles in grammar, do not by themselves const.i.tute terms, though they may be employed along with other words to make up a term.

-- 67. The notions with which thought deals involve many subtle relations and require many nice modifications. Language has instruments, more or less perfect, whereby such relations and modifications may be expressed. But these subsidiary aids to expression do not form a notion which can either have something a.s.serted of it or be a.s.serted itself of something else.

-- 68. Hence words are divided into three cla.s.ses--

(1) Categorematic;

(2) Syncategorematic;

(3) Acategorematic.

-- 69. A Categorematic word is one which can be used by itself as a term.

-- 70. A Syncategorematic word is one which can help to form a term.

-- 71. An Acategorematic word is one which can neither form, nor help to form, a term [Footnote: Comparatively few of the parts of speech are categorematic. Nouns, whether substantive or adjective, including of course p.r.o.nouns and participles, are so, but only in their nominative cases, except when an oblique case is so used as to be equivalent to an attributive. Verbs also are categorematic, but only in three of their moods, the Indicative, the Infinitive, and the Potential. The Imperative and Optative moods clearly do not convey a.s.sertions at all, while the Subjunctive can only figure as a subordinate member of some a.s.sertion. We may notice, too, that the relative p.r.o.noun, unlike the rest, is necessarily syncategorematic, for the same reason as the subjunctive mood. Of the remaining parts of speech the article, adverb, preposition, and conjunction can never be anything but syncategorematic, while the interjection is acategorematic, like the vocative case of nouns and the imperative and optative moods of verbs, which do not enter at all into the form of sentence known as the proposition.].

-- 72. Categorematic literally means 'predicable.' 'Horse,' 'swift,'

'galloping' are categorematic. Thus we can say, 'The horse is swift,'

or 'The horse is galloping.' Each of these words forms a term by itself, but 'over' and 'swiftly' can only help to form a term, as in the proposition, 'The horse is galloping swiftly over the plain.'

-- 73. A term then may be said to be a categorematic word or collection of words, that is to say, one which can be used by itself as a predicate.

-- 74. To ent.i.tle a word or collection of words to be called a term, it is not necessary that it should be capable of standing by itself as a subject. Many terms which can be used as predicates are incapable of being used as subjects: but every term which can be used as a subject (with the doubtful exception of proper names) can be used also as a predicate. The attributives 'swift' and 'galloping' are terms, quite as much as the subject 'horse,' but they cannot themselves be used as subjects.

-- 75. When an attributive appears to be used as a subject, it is owing to a grammatical ellipse. Thus in Latin we say 'Boni sapientes sunt,'

and in English 'The good are wise,' because it is sufficiently declared by the inflexional form in the one case, and by the usage of the language in the other, that men are signified. It is an accident of language how far adjectives can be used as subjects. They cease to be logical attributives the moment they are so used.

-- 76. There is a sense in which every word may become categorematic, namely, when it is used simply as a word, to the neglect of its proper meaning. Thus we can say--'"Swiftly" is an adverb.' 'Swiftly' in this sense is really no more than the proper name for a particular word. This sense is technically known as the 'suppositio materialis'

of a word.

CHAPTER II.

_Of the Division of Things._

-- 77. Before entering on the divisions of terms it is necessary to advert for a moment to a division of the things whereof they are names.

-- 78. By a 'thing' is meant simply an object of thought--whatever one can think about.

-- 79. Things are either Substances or Attributes. Attributes may be sub-divided into Qualities and Relations.

Thing _______________|_______________ | | Substance Attribute _____________|____________ | | Quality Relation

-- 80. A Substance is a thing which can be conceived to exist by itself. All bodies are material substances. The soul, as a thinking subject, is an immaterial substance.

-- 81. An Attribute is a thing which depends for its existence upon a substance, e.g. greenness, hardness, weight, which cannot be conceived to exist apart from green, hard, and heavy substances.